MEd_KThompson

Abstract

Computing in schools has developed at a considerable rate since its infancy in the Seventies. Computer systems are now present, in varying numbers, in the vast majority of Scottish secondary schools. Computing courses for pupils have also blossomed from the early days of CSYS Mathematics Paper 4 to the present situation where courses such as S1/2 Computer Appreciation, Standard Grade Computing Studies, H-Grade Computing and SCOTVEC 16+ Computing Modules are all established. These developments have led to difficulties both in finding qualified staff to run courses and in finding the finance required to buy the computers themselves.

This dissertation traces the development of computing in the secondary sector and then takes an in-depth look at the current provision in one Scottish Region - Fife. All the state secondary schools in the region were asked to provide a variety of information about their computer facilities including the extent of hardware provision, the promoted post structure and cross-curricular computer use. A comparison is then made with Fife's own predictions published in 1984 and also with the 'National Plan' - a national prediction published in 1985.

Where possible constructive criticism has been made and in conclusion suggestions are given which may improve some of the short-comings. These cover such topics as school policy documents, promoted post structure, hardware provision, computer technicians and staff in-service training.

Chapter 1

The Advent of Computing in Schools

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The improvements in technology which resulted in the invention of the microchip have caused more impact on society than perhaps any other development. Indeed one optimistic view is that of JJ Shervan-Shreiber who believes:-

"Of all human inventions since the beginning of mankind, the microprocessor is unique. It is destined to play a part in all areas of life without exception - to increase our capacities, to facilitate or eliminate tasks, to replace physical effort, and to increase the possibilities and areas of mental effort."⁽¹⁾

In 1977 Eggleston suggested that one problem with schools is that:-

"..they are alleged to have failed to respond to the economic and technological imperatives of the late twentieth century"⁽²⁾

I would argue that from relative obscurity in 1978, within a ten year time-span computers have become firmly established throughout the education system, not just as a teaching aid but also as the basis of a separate subject - Computer Studies.

As Evans states:-

"The use of computers in the class-room has developed more quickly than any other single aspect of the education system in the whole of its history and has made huge demands upon those who have been involved."⁽³⁾

Drage and Evans see three main areas where the computer can contribute to schools:-

"a) One may learn about computers,

b) One may learn with computers,

c) One may use computers as a tool, as a stimulus to

ideas, as a resource and as a means to gain access to information." ⁽⁴⁾

The first of these is in agreement with Statz who states that:-

"..a student growing up in a technological society needs to understand the variety of computer uses, and the social and political ramifications of those uses." ⁽⁵⁾

Alternatively the rationale of the Standard Grade Computer Studies document states that:-

"Society is experiencing many changes as a consequence of the growth in the use of computers; education should reflect these changes. It is important ... to understand and to be able to adapt to continuing technological development. Equally it is essential to learn to cope with its effects on everyday life at home, at work and in leisure time." ⁽⁶⁾

which suggests more of a passive acceptance of such change rather than an education to control the direction of technology.

The rationale of the Higher Grade document points out:-

"...the severe shortage of manpower skilled in Information Technology and the resulting need for greater numbers of young people ... well qualified in areas such as computing studies." ⁽⁷⁾

It is important to note however that these shortages are at graduate level and it is unlikely that schools can contribute to its solution.

Whether either of these courses will or even should, solve the problem issues they raise is debatable but neither of these appears to justify the large amounts of money spent on equipping schools with hardware.

Indeed I believe some of the Standard Grade content to be of dubious value regarding its compatability with the Standard Grade rationale and the claim of courses such as the Higher Grade to alleviate man-power shortages is in fact contradicted elsewhere, by J J Wellington for example who suggests:-

"The increase in school computing courses in the 1980s may have contributed to the shortfall of key personnel for the Information Technology industry" ⁽⁸⁾

It is perhaps in the other two of Drage and Evans' categories that the real value of having computers in schools lies. Schostak (1987) states that:-

"The computer ... offers the curriculum developer gateways into an immense and open frontier of cultural experiences.. (which some) .. will see as an exciting chance to explore and develop new ways of seeing and expressing experience in negotiation, or discussion, or dialogue, with their fellow explorers." ⁽⁹⁾

Indeed he sees Information Technology as changing the role of the teacher in all subject disciplines and offering a challenge to teachers which:-

"provides a medium of exploration where the agendas are always up for .. re-formation, de-formation, (and) transformation." ⁽¹⁰⁾

Although this somewhat naively ignores the restrictions of a centrally controlled curriculum, he believes if teachers adapt this stance they will have a

"creative way of framing, unearthing, reflecting upon, exploring, expressing, and questioning the structures through which everyday life unfolds. (Which) as such will be vital to the life of every individual." ⁽¹¹⁾

If this could actually occur it would be of great value since as Schostak himself states:-

"the point of education is to set into motion, to inquire into possible courses, to generate curricula for the pursuit of life." ⁽¹²⁾

Some of Schostak's views are supported by Bork (1984) who predicts that Information Technology will cause radical changes in education over the next twenty years. He believes that:-

"Schools will be very different at the end of that period (twenty years)..(and)..the role of the teacher will be different from that in our current educational delivery system." ⁽¹³⁾

The reason he puts forward for this is two-fold: both the rapidly developing technology and the decline in standards of education using 'traditional methods'.

He believes two factors to be critical in establishing the computer as an effective teaching device:-

"..the interactive nature of computer based learning, and the ability to individualise the learning experience to the needs of each learner." ⁽¹⁴⁾

These are particularly important since they would go a long way towards offsetting one of the major problems in today's education system.

Bork sees this as being:-

"..the fact that we have lost one of the most valuable components in earlier education, the possibility of having learners who are always playing an active role in the learning process." ⁽¹⁵⁾

He continues to offer a possible solution:-

"..But we can develop good computer based learning material in which the student is always active." ⁽¹⁶⁾

It is the unique power of the computer as a very rapid 'information processor' which allows it to perform these functions. With the correct software a computer is capable of what Wood descibes as:-

"..the four essential elements of learning: breaking down knowledge into small amounts; active response; feedback or reinforcement; and self-pacing." ⁽¹⁷⁾

Evans agrees with the potential benefits but feels that pupils will first have to relearn how to actively seek knowledge:-

"The learner will need to change the previous habit of being a passive receiver of knowledge and regenerate the style of learning with which he was familiar in junior school - active seeking out of knowledge in a thematic learning situation." ⁽¹⁸⁾

Evans also believes that schools will undergo a change in emphasis:-

"..from the ancient (and generally irrelevant) traditional subject areas to training for integration into society, fundamental skills, introduction to necessary and mind-broadening experiences - in short a curriculum for life rather than examinations. "⁽¹⁹⁾

This perhaps describes a more general trend which has been on-going in education for some considerable time. It is based on Durkheim's ideas in 'The Division Of Labour In Society' (1964:-Collier Macmillan). These have been interpreted more recently by contemporaries including Bernstein and Burns and Stalker who suggest:-

".. the concepts of 'organic' and 'mechanistic' solidarity (which) can be used to indicate the emphasis within a society of one form of social integration rather than another" ⁽²⁰⁾

These are perhaps best explained by Denys John who states:-

"...The mechanistic form is appropriate to stable conditions and emphasizes specialized differentiation of tasks designated by immediate superiors, a hierachical structure of control, authority, and communication, insistence on loyalty and obedience, and separation of individual tasks from the ends of the concern as a whole.

The organic form, which is appropriate to changing conditions, fresh problems and unforseen requirements, is marked by the contribution of knowledge and experience to the common task, the diffusion of responsibility, a network of control, authority and communication.....and emphasis upon information and advice rather than instructions and decisions."⁽²¹⁾

The trend in schools in general is towards organic solidarity, leading to more complex division of labour and a greater differentiation of the teachers' role since schools must be 'open' systems and responsive to current educational trends. The philosophy of modern courses is such that pupils are being taught fewer bald facts; emphasis is now much more on problem solving and practical abilities thus enabling pupils to cope not only with problems which they have already met but to be able to apply problem-solving techniques to new types of problem. How far this trend has actually progressed is a matter for debate and is beyond the scope of this paper but it may be here, that the power of the computer as a tool can be of value.

Atherton believes computing may also be of value in teaching the 'hidden curriculum' since:-

"Pupils find it interesting.

It has vocational relevance.

It teaches self-discipline.

It teaches humility.

It is an encounter with modern technology.

It affects our lives in an increasing number of areas.

It has very wide applicability.

It is fundamentally significant." ⁽²²⁾

Although I believe it to be very difficult to determine the effect of any particular topic on the hidden curriculum, it is possibly to this hidden curriculum that Woodhouse and McDougall refer when they suggest the second of the following reasons for having school computer courses:-

"1. preparation for employment;

2. self-development of the student;

3. education for a computer-based society;

4. to teach computer use (i.e. operation)

5. to teach computer use (i.e. programming)" ⁽²³⁾

These parallel many of the points above but in general seem to stress computing as a subject rather than computing as a tool.

There are obviously different types of computer input into the education system but in general their effect on learning can be grouped into relatively few main headings.

Adams and Jones make use of a system of categorization found in an "Introduction To Educational Computing" - N.Rushby (1979) - Croom Helm. Using this system, the role of the computer in education is classified into four 'educational paradigms'.

These are:-

"1. Instructional: covering programmed learning,

drills, tests etc.

2. Revelatory: problem solving, concept teaching, etc.

3. Conjectural: model building, exploring, etc.

4. Emancipatory: freeing both teacher and pupil to

concentrate on essentials"⁽²⁴⁾

The first three of these show the various types of software which may be of value to education. In all of these the computer is a teaching aid. Its use depends on our own understanding of how students learn and how we believe a machine can help us achieve our aims.

All of these modes have their uses but also possible dangers. As Adams and Jones conclude:-

"In the instructional mode the computer is a patient if rather limited tutor, sometimes a rather trivial and boring one. In the revelatory mode the computer mediates between the student and a model contained in the program. All depends on the quality of the model. In the conjectural mode, the students create their own hypotheses on the basis of the information they receive from the machine. The success ...depending on the skill of the programmer ..."⁽²⁵⁾

In the last of these four - the emancipatory paradigm - the computer is being used to free the student to concentrate on a more important aspect of the learning process, and it is perhaps here that one of the greatest benefits of the technology may be gained.

If pupils can learn to use a computer as readily as they now use a pocket calculator it will become:-

"... a means to discovery - a powerful tool in handling unthinkable quantities of information, a gateway to whole new worlds of communication, a means of controlling our environment and a slave which will work untiringly to release the user from tedious repetitive processes which have no ultimate bearing on the aquisition of knowledge."⁽²⁶⁾

In short in today's busy curricula "it can create 'space' in which young minds can be taught to think and explore ideas for themselves" ⁽²⁷⁾

In summary I give my own reasons for having computers in schools which involve not only computer courses, but also the use of computers in other areas.

A) Industry requires competence in computing at two levels. At the first level, employees in many areas must be computer literate and this literacy can be developed throughout secondary school in various ways. At the second level, a minority of people require to be trained, to a greater extent, as computer professionals. Although for areas such as programmers, computer-engineers or computer-designers this really requires education at a tertiary level, a beginning can be made in school via more specialised courses. There is also a danger here however that courses concentrate on outdated specifics. As Norton-Grubb (1984) criticises when commenting on the vocational significance of IT:-

"The tendancy towards too-specific training driven by pressure to be 'relevant' (and) In the high-tech area, an emphasis on specific skills (the pace of change rapidly making them obsolete)." ⁽²⁸⁾

B) Computers can improve pupils learning skills in general, and more specifically, can improve learning in particular subject areas. As stated in 'The National Plan':-

"The introduction of micros into the class-room will bring to teachers a rich resource which must be seen as an ally." ⁽²⁹⁾

This is perhaps an over-simplification of some of the issues above but by exploiting the possibilities of Information Technology, pupils have at their disposal more powerful tools for problem solving and information handling which gives greater scope for firing the imagination and generally expanding horizons.

C) In modern society citizens need to be aware of the technology that will affect their lives. Since the normal means of passing on knowledge is in school, one approach to this could be a "Computer Awareness" course, offered to all pupils. Computer Awareness is defined by Watt as being:-

"a collection of skills, values and relationships that allows a person to function comfortably as a productive citizen of a computer-oriented society."⁽³⁰⁾

This may be a short term course both since its aims could be catered for in a well established cross-curricular approach, and also since increased sophistication in computer systems means they require less and less specialised knowledge to operate them.

This latter point is also mentioned by T.Roszak (1986) who argues:-

"The fact is, each generation of computer users requires fewer special skills, requiring less 'literacy' of users, in much the same way that advances in automotive engineering have made driving a car easier." ⁽³¹⁾

D) Computers can make a contribution to school administration generally making it more efficient.

The opportunity is there if teachers are made aware of it and are sufficiently trained to take it. As Colin Terry states:-

"Whatever arguments are presented for or against the use and usefulness of computers in education, the microcomputer has become an available and flexible resource for the school, even though it has yet to become an available and flexible resource for most classroom teachers. The potential though is clearly there." ⁽³²⁾

Needs

If as argued above, it is accepted that computers can be of great benefit to students, it is worth looking at what provision schools need to exploit this potential, and also whether or not they actually have it. I would suggest that in the short term the following are required:-

a) sufficient hardware and time-table space to ensure all pupils experience a computer awareness course (probably in S1 or S2).

b) sufficient hardware and time-table space to ensure all interested pupils are able to follow a course of further study in computing (in S3/4 or even S5/6).

c) Sufficient software, hardware and training to enable staff to be able to use the computer as the resource it should be both in Computer Aided Learning and as an information processing tool.

However once c) is properly established and computing is used fully in a cross-curricular context the need for a) will disappear.

Before looking at secondary schools in depth to see what they actually have, I will trace the developments which have given rise to the present situation in the secondary sector. I will tend to concentrate on 'Computing Studies' as a separate subject since this is where the main influences appear to lie but its development has also been affected by cross-curricular needs.

1.2 How subjects develop

According to Layton, there are three main stages in the evolution of a school subject. In the first stage:

"the callow intruder stakes a place in the timetable, justifying its presence on grounds such as pertinence and utility. During this stage learners are attracted to the subject because of its bearing on matters of concern to them. The teachers are rarely trained specialists, but bring the missionary enthusiasms of pioneers to their task. The dominant criterion is relevance to the needs and interests of the learners."

In the interim second stage:-

"a tradition of scholarly work in the subject is emerging along with a corps of trained specialists from which teachers may be recruited. Students are still attracted to the Study but as much by its reputation and growing academic status as by its relevance to their own problems and concerns. The internal logic and discipline of the subject is becoming increasingly influential in the selection and organisation of subject matter."

In the final stage:-

"the teachers now constitute a professional body with established rules and values. The selection of subject matter is determined in large measure by the judgements and practices of the specialist scholars who lead enquiries in the field. Students are initiated into a tradition, their attitudes approaching passivity and resignation, a prelude to disenchantment." ⁽³³⁾

For modern subjects trying to gain a foot-hold on the curriculum, there are many problems. Today's time-tables are so full at all levels that there must be strong reasons indeed for more inclusions (eg there are 16 subjects on my own school's second-year time-table). In fact the only way a new subject can enter the curriculum is for an 'older one' to drop from favour and either no longer be offered or at least, have less time allocated to it. In order for this to happen someone in a managerial capacity has to decide that the new-comer has a higher priority. In Layton's scheme, Computing is very much in its infancy having probably just passed into stage two. The stages in its development now follow.

1.3 Developments leading to the present situation in Scottish Schools

Computer Education in Scotland started in 1965 when a UK Interdepartmental group was set up

"to consider what steps can be usefully taken in the educational system to improve the supply of trained personnel working with computers, in the light of expected demand for such personnel."⁽³⁴⁾

The Government, therefore, were the initial instigators of curriculum interest in Computer Studies.

As a result of this report, in 1967 the Computers and the Schools Committee (The Bellis Committee) was set up:-

"..to consider the implications of computers for schools and to make recommendations." ⁽³⁵⁾

Their interim report in 1969 saw three areas to consider:-

Computer Education

Computer Aided Learning in School subjects

Computers in School Administration ⁽³⁶⁾

In their final report, made in 1972, five recommendations were made:-

1) An introductory course should be provided for all pupils using the combined skills of teachers \ from various subjects.

2) Further work in computing should be incorporated into the teaching of other subjects. Computer Studies should not be developed as a subject in its own right.

3) All inspectors, advisers and teachers should be made aware of the applications of computers in their own subjects. Those responsible for subject development should be encouraged, in looking ahead, to consider to what extent computers will lead to changes of existing practices.